The Winnemucca Institute for Advanced Studies presents

Marklund Convection

Marklund Convection is a process where ionized material is moved from its current location, to a place that is more compatible with its Ionization Potential. This is accomplished by the electric field potential and to some extent the magnetic field strength in the local area at the time. This process usually takes place in outer space, and most often in the surrounding area of a Birkeland Current or in a Planetary Nebula, or other Nebula type structures where electric currents are present and moving. Here on Earth there is too much interference from other sources of energy fields and it disturbs the delicate action of the Marklund Convection process which generally takes an unhurried movement as the field's force of attraction is not vigorously dynamic, but it is relentless.

Marklund Convection, named after Swedish physicist Göran T. Marklund, is an electric-field process that occurs within a plasma filled domain in which a filamentary electric current is transiting thru the plasma. The field surrounding the current flow causes a motion among the ions in the plasma, a motion that is based on their respective Ionization Potential. As each ionized element, molecule, or other ionized particle, has an electric charge potential, their resulting ionization potential will determine how much 'pull' the 'field' will have upon it, and that determines where each different 'ionization potential' will then relocate in relation to the other 'potentials'. This 'separation' by ionization potential is the 'convection' process in Marklund Convection.

It could be compared in action to how different 'specific gravity' liquors will 'stay in layers' if correctly added to a fancy drink glass for upscale customers. The different ionization potentials of various chemical elements when they are ionized, ( i.e. have one or more of their outer electrons missing ), gives them a different 'specific gravity' in this example, and so they will stay in their respective 'layers', as differing ionization potential particles will 'gravitate' to different 'locations'; although 'gravity' is NOT involved in Marklund Convection ! it is an 'electrical process', so the liquors example isn't a very good one in a way, as it can be confusing due to 'specific gravity' being substituted for 'ionization potential'.

With the different chemical constituents in a space plasma, each having its own specific ionization potential, that ionization potential will determine where the different elements, chemicals, and various ionized atoms and molecules, will be influenced to now relocate within the surrounding Field strength that influences their Ionization Potential. The electric field potential will then cause each ionization potential to seek an equilibrium location where they are now more comfortable, electrically speaking. This is a natural process.

Ionization Potential

If an element is said to have a High Ionization Potential, that mean it takes a Higher Voltage to take away its outer electron; it does NOT mean it is more easily ionized. A high ionization potential means it has a harder time being ionized.

If an element has a Low Ionization Potential, it means it is more easily ionized because it only takes a Low Voltage to remove an electron.

So "high" means it can't ionize very quickly and "low" means it can. The hardest element to ionize is Helium, which is why it has the highest ionization potential of all. Whereas Iron has a rather low ionization potential, and will soon ionize.

Heavy elements like Iron will more easily lose an electron (a negative electric charge), and then the atom will have an overall positive charge. This ease of becoming positive make these atoms more susceptible to being closer to the center of the current flow. Elements like Hydrogen and Helium are slower to become ionized, and they will be relegated to further away locations in outer space.

In Marklund's Paper, the plasma convects radially inwards toward the center of a cylindrical flux 'tube' or 'rope', this is the surrounding location to where the electric current filament is traveling. During this convection process, the ionized material will enter into a progressively 'electrically cooler' region. The plasma constituents will then be able to recombine with an available electron and become neutral again, or non-ionized again, and thus no longer under the influence of the electromagnetic field's Convection Force, but they will have already been relocated to their ionization potential location by the Marklund Convection process !

In a partially ionized plasma the non-ionized material is indirectly acted on through the 'viscosity' between the ionized and non-ionized material, and this will 'clear the area' of virtually all the material in that location, as Don Scott's Paper "Magnetic Fields of Birkeland Currents" also describes how non-ionized materials will be 'dragged along' with the ionized materials to their new location.

It is important to remember that when an electric current is flowing or moving thru a region filled with plasmas, a magnetic field will form around the flowing current, like a 'pipe' or 'tube' around the current's flowing path !! The magnetic field is also an influencer in this 'relocation process', but the electric field is really the major contributor in this ionization-potential convection-process. So, it is a complicated 'dance' that is going on here ! We really need to send several 'probes' into a Birkeland Current's domain and get some real data on what is going on there ! As a Birkeland Current can be massive the Marklund Convection rate could be dynamic ! This will also help us greatly for figuring out how to make use of the vast amount of 'power' or 'energy' that exists there, so as to use some of it for the main engines on our space ship !

Göran Marklund and Hannes Alfvén are in agreement on how elements with the lowest ionization potential are brought closest to the axis of the current flow, and then higher and higher Ionization Potential ions form concentric cylinders whose radii increase outward with ionization potential. The inward drift of even further-out ionized materials from the surrounding areas, and then into the 'rope' means that the rope acts as an ion pump, which evacuates surrounding regions, producing areas of extremely low density in certain locations, just like Don Scott's Paper also describes in one of the illustrations !

[ My understanding is that Marklund Convection Theory has not been definitively proven by experimental observation, but the logic and data express about a 98% success to Theory likelihood, and as Birkeland was correct about the Sun and Earth's auroras, and as Alfvén has been correct about plasma, Marklund is just as likely to be correct about this Convection process. We need to 'get out there' and transit ourself, or send probes, thru some location areas where this Marklund Convection is happening !! Some telescopic data in various wavelengths does confirm the presence of various elements in states of ionization in the suspect locations, so we are on the right path, we just need more data ! ]

In terms of a hierarchy of Ionization Potentials in elements ; that are commonly, sometimes, or rarely, found in plasmas and in certain Planetary Nebulae (PNe) : ( all elements have an IP, only a few are listed here as an example )

Na , Li , Al , Fe , B , Ir , Be , As , S , C , Cl , H , O , N , He

495 , 520 , 577, 762 , 800 , 880 , 899 , 947 , 999 , 1086 , 1251 , 1312 , 1314 , 1402 , 2372

Ionization Potential Increases ------->

Sodium, Lithium, Aluminum, Iron, Boron, Iridium, Beryllium, Arsenic, Sulfur, Carbon, Chlorine, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Helium

We must remember that Ionized Hydrogen is just a proton !! and as such it has some different characteristics
to its abilities and requirements than most other heavier ions, which can affect its Ionization Potential location in Marklund Convection.

There are exceptions to the general trend of rising ionization energies within the Periodic Table of the Elements in its Period determination location on the chart. For example, the value decreases from Beryllium (Be: 9.3 eV) to Boron (B: 8.3 eV), and from Nitrogen (N: 14.5 eV) to Oxygen (O: 13.6 eV). These dips are explained in terms of electron shell configurations.

Calculating Ionization Potentials is more complicated than just following the number of atomic 'particles' in each element.
The structure of the electron 'shells' in the organization of their electrons, is of great importance for how easy or how difficult it is to remove an electron from that particular 'shell'.

What is Ionization :

Ionization is when the electron is raised to a higher energy level by absorption of energy from an external source, and it then leaves its atom. In the start of this process, if the energy absorption increase continues, a point will be reached where the electron has more energy than the nucleus attraction can maintain and it will leave its electron shell and depart from the atom.

Ionization energy (IE) or ionization potential (IP) is the minimum amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron of an isolated gaseous atom, or ion of an element.

In physics, ionization energy is expressed by the unit 'electron volt' (eV) but in chemistry, it is expressed by the unit 'kilojoules per mole' (kJ/mol) or 'kilocalories per mole' (kcal/mol).

First, Second, and Third Ionization Energies :

The atom's electrons are removed in stages, one after another, from an atom or ion. Therefore, the values of successive ionization energies of an element differ, one from another. The successive ionization energies can be represented as first, second, third, fourth, etc.

First ionization energy : The amount of energy required for the removal of the first electron from a gaseous atom is called its first ionization energy (IE1).

Second ionization energy : The energy required for the removal of the second electron from a unipositive cation is called second ionization energy (IE2).

Third and fourth ionization energies : Similarly progress.

On the lower surface of our Sun, below the photosphere, IE9 of Iron (Fe9) is seen in spectrographic photos ! So the ionization process can be extensive !!

Key Takeaways : Ionization Energy

Ionization energy is the amount of energy needed to completely remove an electron from a gaseous atom.

Generally, the first ionization energy is lower than that required to remove subsequent electrons. There are exceptions !

Ionization energy exhibits a trend on the Periodic Table. Ionization energy generally increases moving from left to right across a Period or row, and decreases moving top to bottom down an element Group or Column.

[ For Example triply ionized Oxygen, IE3, (O3) is often found in the false color of 'blue' in the central cavity of many space photos of PNe ! PNe photos use a 'standardized false-color format' in their photos, which makes it quick and easy to identify what elements, and their specific ionization state, are in the photos. APOD (the Astronomy Picture Of the Day, a NASA produced website) uses photos following this protocol. Hydrogen Alpha (Hα), or ionized Hydrogen, and as H has only one electron - it can only be ionized once, Hα is found in many false-color photos, Hα is colored 'red' in photos. ]

( btw: Nebula is the singular, Nebulae is the Latin plural, and PNe is short for Planetary Nebulae )

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Factors Affecting Ionization Potential :

Atomic radius : The value of the ionization potential (IP) of an element decreases as its atomic radius increases. This is because the electrostatic force of attraction between the nucleus and the outermost electron decreases as the distance between them increases. So the energy required for the removal of an electron will be comparatively less in the larger atoms, this is why the largest atomic elements have low ionization potentials, and it reflects in their location on the Table of Elements.

Effective nuclear charge : The greater the effective charge on the nucleus of an atom, the more difficult it would be to remove an electron from the atom because electrostatic forces of attraction between the nucleus and the outermost electron are stronger. So a greater energy will be required to remove the electron.

Helium has a very 'equal' structure, 2 Neutrons, 2 Protons, and 2 Electrons. A very small nucleus and a 'filled' innermost electron shell ! Which means Helium has the strongest configuration of all ! So, it is the most difficult to remove an electron from. This is why He has the highest IP of all the elements.

Penetration effect of the orbitals : The order, of the amount of energy required to remove an electron from the s,p,d and ƒ electron orbital shells goes thusly s>p>d>ƒ because the distance of the electron from the nucleus keeps increasing from s to ƒ. For example : The value of ionization potential of Be (Z=4, 1s 2 , 2s 2 ) and Mg (Z=12, 1s 2 , 2s 2 , 2p 6 , 3s 2 ) are more than the IPs of B (Z=5, 1s 2 , 2s 2 , 2px1) and Al (Z=13, 1s 2 , 2s 2 ,2p 6 , 3s 2 , 3px1) because the penetration power of 2s and 3s electrons is more than 2p and 3p electrons respectively. More energy will be required to separate the electrons from 2s and 3s orbitals than from 2p and 3p orbitals.

Shielding or screening effect : The shielding or screening effect increases if the number of electrons in the inner shells between the nucleus and the outermost electrons increases. This results in a decrease of 'force of attraction' between the nucleus and the outermost electron, and thus a lesser energy is required to separate the electron. Thus the value of IP decreases. This is why the very largest atoms all have the lowest IPs.

Ionization potential α1 / Shielding effect

Stability of half-filled and fully-filled orbitals : According to Hund's Rule the stability of half filled and completely filled orbitals is comparatively high. So comparatively more energy is required to separate an electron from the atoms having half-filled and fully-filled electronic configurations, than from other configurations.

For example :

Removal of an electron is comparatively difficult from the half filled configuration of N (Z=7, Is 2 , 2s 2 , 2p x1 , 2p y1 , p z1).

The ionization potential of Inert gases is very high due to stable 's' 2 , 'p' 6 electronic configurations. 2 fully-filled shells !!

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This is an 'Extra Credit' section !

And as such, is very important to understand.

The electron in its "cloud of potentiality in existence" as it orbits the nucleus of an atom, is in reality, most inscrutable !

[ As many criticisms of the Mainstream Sciences as I have, many scientists have done exceptionally excellent work !!!
One of which is the 'story' we have developed to explain the complex machinations that electrons will exhibit during interactions between various different elements, and with energy inputs that are 'absorbed'. ]

The orbital electron shell termed 's' is the closest-in of these 4 shells, 'p' is next out, 'd' is further out than 'p', and 'f ' is the furthest out of these 'closest 4 shells' to the nucleus, and thus the 'f ' shell is the farthest of these 4 shells from the nucleus and the 'easiest' to remove an electron from.

As a side note for those less familiar with the Neils Bohr model of electrons as they 'orbit' around the nucleus of an atom, the electrons orbit in 'shells' or 'a sphere' that is thin, like an egg shell. They are in a series of successively larger-in-radius shells, that surround the nucleus, kind of like those 'nesting Russian dolls' where each doll is inside of the next larger one, electron shells are organized like that. Each shell has the potential for only 'so many' electrons, any more electrons 'acquired' or 'mandated' for a particular kind of atom or element, must then 'reside' in the next further out shell !
A furthest out shell with only one electron in it, is very vulnerable to being ionized and taken away from the atom.

As a further side note : the 4 shells listed here s,p,d,f, are short for ; 's - sharp' , 'p - principal' , 'd - diffuse' , 'f - fundamental' . The next out would be the 'g' shell and is just alphabetical it doesn't represent a word.

The Maximum number of electrons in each shells goes as follows :
s - 2
p - 6
d - 10
f - 14

In later decades the terminology for the shells was modified to ; K, L, M, N, O.
And each 'capital letter' shell would have 'sub-shells' within it, and in the specific order of : s , p , d , f . (like as labeled earlier)

It's starting to get a bit complicated here !! in that the capital letter 'big shells' each have subshells within them !

Thusly the new labeling nomenclature for electron shells goes like this :
The innermost shell to the nucleus was now called the K shell, and the K shell may only have a maximum of 2 electrons in it, so it only has an 's' subshell !
The next out shell is the L shell, and it has 2 subshells, the 's' and the 'p' subshells, for a maximum of 2 + 6 electrons, = 8.
Next out is the M shell, it has 3 subshells, the 's', 'p', and 'd' subshells, for a maximum of 2 + 6 + 10 electrons, = 18.
Next out is the N shell, and it has 4 subshells, the 's', 'p', 'd', and 'f' subshells, for a maximum of 2 + 6 + 10 + 14 electrons, = 32.
Next out is the O shell, and it may have 5 subshells, the 's', 'p', 'd', 'f', and 'g' subshells, for a maximum of 2 + 6 + 10 + 14 + 18 electrons, = 50
The most electrons in a shell that we have determined so far is 32, theoretically possible are 50, but that would be in some theorized 'super heavy elements' that are not yet discovered, but are postulated to perhaps exist somewhere.

As the very largest atoms have very large numbers of electrons, this is how we 'organize' them, to make sense of it all.

This is a bit of a digression from the title of Marklund Convection, but it is important to understand how Ionization Potential is not a simple number to arrive at !! as the electron configurations of various atoms can get complicated in their susceptibility to being ionized, as determined by the number of electrons in each of the subshells, and the hierarchy of their 'detachment' or 'excitation' as they gain 'energy' or eV - electron volts, which is what causes the electron to depart from its atom.

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Göran T. Marklund received his PhD in plasma physics from the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm, Sweden in 1983. His Thesis was an important contribution to the classification of aural arcs based on direct measurements of electric fields in the auroral plasma. As a co-worker and later successor of Ulf Fahleson and Lars Block, Göran Marklund specialized in theory and measurements of auroral electric fields by means of rockets and satellites, using the double-probe technique. This was very much in the spirit of Hannes Alfvén, who frequently emphasized the crucial importance of direct measurements of electric fields in space as a check on theory and simulations.

As leader of the space research program of the Division of Space and Plasma Physics of the Royal Institute of Technology, Göran Marklund has greatly contributed to the success of this research. He has been Principal Investigator of the electric field experiments on the satellites Viking and Freja, has been involved in a number of other missions, and is an author in more than a hundred refereed publications. Amongst his achievements is the discovery of the existence of downward directed magnetic-field aligned electric fields in the auroral return-current region. He has pioneered the experimental study of the temporal evolution of these electric fields and their role in the auroral circuit, as well as their relation to black aurora. Further, he established experimentally that magnetic-field-aligned electric fields are ubiquitous in magnetized space plasmas, and are existing regardless of electric current direction, or electric resistance, and magnetic field divergence.

In summary, Marklund has in a substantial way paved the way for the understanding of plasma processes in the solar system and other cosmical plasma environments, which makes him a very worthy recipient of the 2013 Alfvén Medal for his outstanding contributions in Auroral Physics, especially his discovery of downward-directed magnetic-field aligned electric fields, an essential feature of the auroral circuit, and their association with black aurora. (those whose radiations are below the visible light region of the EM Spectrum).

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[1] Ionization Potential Or Ionization Energy
https://www.pw.live/school-prep/exams/chapter-class11-chemistry-periodic-ionization-potential-or-ionization-energy

Information provided herein by the Winnemucca Institute for Advanced Studies is for educational purposes. Our ‘Man on the Street Series’ of informative Science Papers is designed to provide a semi-technical answer to everyday experiences.
Although we did get a bit 'technical' in this one !